NASA Feature

Look! A few weeks ago, I received an email from the University of California in Berkeley - they were putting together an article that would be distributed to middle school students (free of charge) by NASA. And they wanted to include a "head-shot" of my ACEO collage of Henrietta Swan Leavitt (largely unrecognized for her important work)! What an honour! It turned out so good:

Happy Ada Lovelace Day!

Today is Ada Lovelace day!

WHO? Ada Lovelace is considered to be the world's first computer programmer - she wrote software for Charles Babbage's analytical machine, the first "computer." Unfortunately, the analytical machine was never completed, but her programs would still have worked. In fact, she was one of the first to see computers as more than just adding machines - envisioning that computers could even compose elaborate pieces of music one day.

So what? WHY does that give Ada a whole day to herself? Well... have you ever heard of Ada Lovelace? What about Henrietta Leavitt? Rosalind Franklin?

Probably not.

These women were all scientist & made major contributions to their fields (see above & below) - but did they get any recognition? Does anyone ever learn about them, except in passing reference to their male colleagues? Of course not, they were women!

So today is a day for recognizing women in science: a field where we're often ignored or unacknowledged - where a women's contribution is often attributed to her male colleagues' ideas - or a man's "interpretation" of her work is deemed most important.

We're important too, darn it!

Thankfully, "political correctness" is all the rage now - and gender equality falls within those boundaries. Of course, this doesn't necessarily mean women are getting paid the same amount as a man for doing the same job ... but it's getting better. Let's continue the positive trend - spread the word! Today is Ada Lovelace day!

Rosalind Franklin: her x-ray crystallography photographs were what clued Watson & Crick in that DNA was a double-stranded helix. They probably would never have figured out DNA's structure without it.

Henrietta Swan Leavitt: her work on the relationship between periodicity and luminosity of stars forever changed our view of the universe. Her variables allowed Edwin Hubble to measure distances in the universe & discover that other galaxies existed outside of ours (the Milky Way).

All 3 of these women died of cancer (and blood-letting in at least Ada's case) before their work was recognized.

Diabetes

What is colloquially known as diabetes is actually diabetes mellitus. In terms of word origins, diabetes means "running through" - the disease was given this name because those with diabetes urinate in greater volumes. The word mellitus means sweet since there's a lot of glucose (sugar) in the urine of diabetic.

There is another condition called diabetes insipidus (a vasopressin deficiency). These patients also urinate excessively, but their urine isn't sweet. Fun fact: in the past, doctors would actually drink a bit of urine to verify diagnosis! So while the word diabetes is used to refer to diabetes mellitus, this can be a bit confusing if you have the other condition.

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This Science Byte is focused on diabetes mellitus. I'll bet everyone reading this knows someone who has diabetes - it's fairly common. As you probably know, there are 2 types: type 1 & type 2.


A bit of background first: insulin. Insulin is a hormone that is secreted in response to elevated blood glucose (i.e. after you eat). It works to activate cells to uptake glucose, clearing it from the blood & storing it (or using it - glucose is the cell's main energy source). Diabetes is caused by a disruption of insulin's function (see below for the causes of both types). Diabetics prick their finger to measure their blood glucose - if it's too high or low, they could end up in a coma. Generally though, even with treatment, their glucose levels are higher than normal, eventually contributing to the side effects associated with diabetes (kidney failure, nerve damage, blindness, etc).


Type 1 diabetes: AKA insulin-dependent diabetes, childhood diabetes

People with type 1 diabetes are born with it - they cannot produce insulin (or don't produce nearly enough). This form is less common, comprising about 10% of diabetics in the US. Their immune system actually attacks the cells in the pancreas that secrete insulin (beta cells). The cause of this attack is unknown but thought to be autoimmune-related. So for type-1 diabetics, insulin therapy is necessary & injected daily. This on-going treatment is less than ideal however & cures are in the front line of diabetic research. Until recently, stem cell replacement was thought to be the best way to replace the damaged beta cells (though researchers still haven't found a way to control the insulin secreted by these stem cells). However, Nature Genetics just posted a cutting-edge report by Chutima Talchai, PhD, and Domenico Accili, MD, showing that resident progenitor cells in the gut of mice could be induced to differentiate into insulin-producing glucose-sensitive cells. While much research remains to be conducted to investigate the feasibility of performing these inductions in humans, it certainly provides a fresh new avenue for research.


Type 2 diabetes: AKA insulin-independent diabetes, adult-onset diabetes

Type 2 diabetes typically develops in overweight adults (& with the increasing prevalence of obesity, in teens & children now too). People with type 2 diabetes have normal (or above average) insulin levels in their blood. Instead, they have an insulin insensitivity - the body no long responds to it (or at least not as well as it should). Insulin therapy is therefore ineffective for type 2 diabetes. The causes of type 2 diabetes are not completely understood, but possibly relate to a decrease in the number of insulin-responsive glucose transporters on cells (proteins that take up glucose when stimulated by insulin) due to an excess of glucose (as in diet-induced obesity). Weight loss & exercise are the first line of treatment. Exercise actually increases these glucose transporters in cells. This isn't always enough though & a number of pharmacotherapies are available. All these drugs act to lower blood glucose levels (through different mechanisms I won't get into).

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My third cousin was born with type 1 diabetes & my grandpa developed type 2 diabetes. If you've somehow been touched by diabetes, I'd love to hear about it in the comments. Questions (or corrections) are welcome too!

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Today's Science Byte is brought to you by Vander, Sherman & Luciano's Human Physiology (p.619) & Science Daily.

Women in Science: Henrietta Swan Leavitt

The second female scientist I'm going to introduce is Henrietta Swan Leavitt. Her groundbreaking discovery forever changed our view of the Universe... have you heard of her?

If you haven't studied astronomy, chances are you aren't familiar with her name. She was a hard worker - never married, never had children - and in the end, like many females, she never received any recognition during her own lifetime.

• Henrietta Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables, which allowed Edwin Hubble to measure distances between stars, planets and galaxies. The Cepheid variables also enabled him to discover that other galaxies exist outside of ours, the Milky Way Galaxy.
• A Cepheid variable is actually a star. Variable stars pulsate, changing in size and luminosity (brightness). What makes a variable star a Cepheid is the relationship between the luminosity and period: the star will become brightest (and dimmest) at a distinct interval. It's like a sine (or cosine) curve, which I'm showing at the left. Imagine one of the lines as the luminosity: it always increases and decreases to the same level of brightness, and each cycle always takes the same amount of time. Somehow (I don't know the exact mechanics) this is used as a ruler to measure distances in the Universe.
• Henrietta discovered these stars while working at Harvard College Observatory. She was employed as a computer. That's right - before the PC, a computer was actually a job title. Henrietta was part of "Pickering's Harem," the first group of female computers (previously only a man's job). This of course freed the men to do more important (& fun) work, with telescopes, for example (which women were not allowed to use).
• Henrietta started working at the Observatory in 1893 & published her findings in 1908 - only 15 years, which is pretty impressive considering what she was doing. She measured and catalogued the brightness of stars from photographic plates. You can see an example of such a plate at the right. From these, she began to see a pattern, leading to her publication.
• After that, Henrietta's health declined. An illness left her almost completely deaf & she never fully recovered, probably due to the questionable medical practices at the time.
• She was appointed head of Stellar Photometry in 1921 by the new director of the Observatory, Harlow Shapley, but died later that year of cancer. Four years later, Gösta Mittag-Leffler of the Swedish Academy of Science contacted Shapley about Henrietta, intending to nominate her for the Nobel Prize in Physics. She never was, since the Nobel prize is not awarded posthumously, but the real insult came from Shapley, who suggested that he deserved the credit for the interpretation of her work.

Women in Science: Rita Levi-Montalcini

Women in science do not get the recognition they deserve - they are often overlooked, forgotten or brushed to the side to do menial repetitive work. One of the best examples is Rosalind Franklin: without her, Watson & Crick would never have elucidated the structure of DNA. But did she share the Nobel Prize with them? No (sure, she had passed away before the Prize was awarded, but she still doesn't get the credit she deserves).

In honour of all these amazing women, I'm starting a "Women in Science" series, wherein I will explain some of the invaluable work these female scientists have accomplished.

Today we're going to start with Rita Levi-Montalcini, a remarkable woman I first learned about in my undergrad program (Biology & Pharmacology Co-op at McMaster University).

• Rita Levi-Montalcini won the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of nerve growth factor (NGF). Her experiments looked at the growth of chick embryos & found that a transplanted tumour caused an excessive outgrowth of nerves. She thought the tumour cells must be producing a compound (NGF) that was exclusively inducing the growth of neurons. At the time (1952), it was a fairly radical idea & no one believed her - but she went on to prove her theory. Further research also showed that cells can produce NGF when looking for a new nerve connection.
• Rita shared the Nobel Prize with her colleague Stanley Cohen. He found that NGF was abundant in snake venom & mammalian saliva & was able to isolate the protein to determine its structure. At the same time, he discovered epidermal growth factor, a compound that promotes the growth of a number of different cell types.
• Rita is a twin. She & her twin sister Paola were born in 1909 - which makes her 101, the oldest living Nobel laureate. She's also the first Nobel Prize winner to reach her 100th birthday.
• As with many female scientists, Rita was discouraged along the way. Her father ran a strict household & thought that a professional career would interfere with a woman's role as a wife & mother. Eventually, triumphantly, she was able to overcome his objections & enrolled in medical school.
• As a Jewish family in Italy during WWII, Rita's medical career was over almost as soon as it began. She set up a lab in her own bedroom though - more than once since she had to relocate - and conducted her own experiments! She even hired an old teacher of hers as an assistant for a time. At the end of the war, another one of her professors asked her to join him in America. She planned on staying a few months, but the experiments went so well she stayed for 30 years!
• Rita is a Senator for Life in Italy, where she gets a lot of bad press from people who disagree with her political opinions. She's fierce though & won't back down, despite her age & gradual loss of hearing & sight.

I think Rita Levi-Montalcini is someone from whom everyone can learn a little something. Her persistence & integrity are certainly laudable; she's definitely someone to look up to.

Nutritionist vs Dietitian

To get this blog rolling, I thought I'd start with a topic I'm passionate about: nutrition. Specifically, I'm going to talk about a caveat to watch for before making any changes to your diet.

Lately, "holistic healing" has been in the news a lot, with many different ideas on what a healthy lifestyle entails (juicing! alkaline water! raw vegan!). Notably, many of these are put forth & supported by impressive sounding certified professional nutritionists - so they must know what they're talking about, right?

Actually, maybe not. Here's what you should know:

Nutritionist vs. Dietitian

or

Certified Nutritional Practioner (CNP) vs. Registered Dietitian (RD)

Let's say you're trying to lose weight, or need to change your diet for a specific reason (allergies, intolerances, high blood pressure, migraines, etc), and want professional advice. Who do you turn to? A nutritionist or a dietitian?

I think the best way to compare the two is by looking at the schooling & experience you need in order to obtain these qualifications:

To become a Registered Dietitian (RD), you must:

1. Earn your bachelor's degree from a University that is accredited by the Dietitians of Canada (DC) or the American Dietetic Association (ADA)
2. Apply for a post-degree internship or Masters practicum, completing a minimum number of hours (1200 in the US) under the supervision of a RD
3. Write & pass an examination offered by the DC or ADA

Only then can you call yourself a dietitian. However, similar to other health practitioner (like doctors, nurses, dentists, etc), you cannot practice unless you register with the ADA or the provincial regulatory body for the Canadian province in which you want to practice. This registration must then be renewed yearly in order to continue your practice.

All in all, pretty rigorous, as any health profession should be.

So what about becoming a nutritionist?

Nutritionists are NOT regulated by any agency. Anyone can take a nutrition program at some obscure college & declare themselves "certified" - indeed, "institutes" or "councils" are often affiliated with the program or school directly in order to confer certificates on their students upon graduation. Naturally, these programs are organized & taught by certified nutritionists, resulting in a curriculum that may not necessarily meet the proper standards.

This means that despite all those letters after a nutritionists name (CNP, RNCP, ANP), they may not be as qualified as they seem. Certainly they are not as well trained as a RD. Before you spend any money on an assessment, ensure that the professional you're seeing is indeed a registered professional. Always be skeptical of professionals propounding the next miracle-cure-vitamin-antioxidant-you-really-need-to-know-about-but-your-doctor-isn't-telling-you!!! If it sounds too good to be true, it probably isn't true. In fact, take all "preventatives" with a grain of salt; remember the placebo effect: a tablespoon of sugar water is a great cure for many ailments.

(NB: I'm not saying all nutritionists are quacks - I'm sure there are some good ones out there. Just do your research before spending your money!)

Welcome!

Welcome to my new blog, Science Byte!

I met with a friend & colleague for coffee yesterday & she gave me a great idea: start a blog devoted to science. I've recently graduated with my MSc & am currently in the middle of a job search, hoping primarily for a medical writing position. A blog is a perfect venue to showcase & exercise my scientific writing skills.

I haven't settled on specific topics to cover here yet, but I'm aiming for a wide range that will cover my varying interests. I'm sure pharmacology, ethics and healthcare will surface frequently. I'll also start transferring some of my "Science Byte" posts over from my Ulixis Crafts blog in order to have some content here.

If you have any suggestions for future posts, please leave me a comment!